Leadership - Section 4 
Leading with Integrity

Applying Moral Principles​​​

 

​​There is a very real right or wrong,

good or bad, moral or immoral, ethical or unethical decision

for you, and every person

in every situation they encounter.

​

Just like the principles that determine the physical world, such as gravity,

moral principles are very real.

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If you step off a tall building without a parachute, or touch an open electrical wire,

you could possibly be injured or die.

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If you are dishonest, steal and lie, or injure other people without just cause,

you could possibly be injured or die.

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In either of these scenarios, it is also possible that you could escape injury,

based on your circumstances. 

​Your situation is always unique to you.

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At the point in life which you must make a moral decision,

you must consider both the universal principles of ethics, and your circumstances.  

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​​The Main Approaches to Moral Decision Making

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Sometimes we think about the consequences of our actions 

when we think about right and wrong. 

Other times we consider our intentions or our duty. 

Most moral actions involve a little of both.

 

There are several categories of moral decision-making approaches, or ethical theories.

you and I, and all of us humans, have a part of each of these ideas

built into our very human and animal nature.

 

You and I address moral situations with each of these approaches

based on what we learn from our life experiences,

including formal education and informal learning

which starts at conception and continues until death.

 

I address each of the approaches to moral decision making in the other parts of this website.

Here, we want to look at them as leadership tools.

 

Keep in mind as you read about each approach,

there is not one way to address the moral situation you face.

The different approaches usually overlap with each other.

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Approaching Moral Situations From the Self-centered Nature of Life

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In every moral decision, you naturally consider your own survival and wellbeing.

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You are a living being. As a living being, you have an instinct for survival. 

You want to survive, just like all living organisms. 

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Your existence at this moment in time, the continuous present moment in time, 

is an absolute fact.

 

Your existence includes this mysterious thing called consciousness.

You have a mind, body, and soul.

You are aware of yourself and care about your survival. 

​

You and all living things care about your survival and thus are self-centered.

You must care about your continued existence.

This notion of care can be used interchangeably with the notion of the instinct for survival.

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Survival is a core principle of every living thing. 

Another way of expressing this instinct for survival is to call it self-interest,

or to say that a living thing is selfish.

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To be alive means to survive and continue existing, or to exist in the continuous moment.

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Tool

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​You must always acknowledge your self-interest.

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That I care about myself and my survival, that I am self-centered, self-interested,

is an undeniable fact.

 

This is similar to the knowledge we find in science.

 

That gravity exists is a fact. 

There is a fundamental principle regarding how gravity exists and acts.

Physics studies gravity and its principle and action,

or what this force of the universe is, and how it functions.

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That you exist, or rather, that you are alive, a living thing, is a fact. 

​

That you are self-centered is the fundamental law of your life,

your continued existence,

or to put it more clearly:

​​

The first universal principle of human morality is that

you care about yourself and your survival.

 

This fact is built into every moral decision you make.

​

You need to take this into account, acknowledge it as a starting point,

and then address the question:

How can you balance your self-interest with other considerations?

As a leader, you must align your self-interest, with that same interest in you followers.  

This principle is the foundation for moral leadership.

In each moral decision, you must consider your own survival.

I must consider my own survival. 

​

I must care for myself.

You must care for yourself.

We must care for each other.

Leaders must care for the survival of all humans.

​

In each moral decision, you must take into account survival.

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Concern for self can be put on a continuum.

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At one end is the notion of not caring for yourself or your own wellbeing.

At the other end is only caring for yourself, without any concern for anything else.

 

​In the situation you face, you consider the extreme positions you could take,

and look for something in-between which you believe is the morally best balance

of concern for yourself, concern for your followers

and consideration of the universal moral principles.

 

in moral leadership decision making you must always take into account that others exist,

others who are exactly like you in the sense of human equality,

with equal self-interest in survival and flourishing.

 

Approaching Moral Situations from the Other-centered Nature of Life

 

You must care for others, in making moral decisions.

 

The second most certain fact in the universe is that I need others, for me to exist.

You exist. There is no me without You.

​

In order to exist, survive, and flourish every living thing requires other living things

and, in particular, other living things like themselves.

 

the second universal principal of leadership and morality is:

​Care for self extends to others

or

out of self-interest comes other-interest

and

your self-interest and your other-interest are equal.

​

 

Without others you would not exist

nor have any chance of continued existence or flourishing.

It is true of all living things that other similar livings must exist.

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Tool

 

How will the decision you make affect the short-and long-term survival of others?

How will it help your followers and others flourish? 

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Every moral decision you make, or I make, must include care and concern for others.

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This also has a continuum, similar to care for self.

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On the one extreme is the total disregard for any other beings,

on the other extreme, is an excessive care for other, to my own harm,

or to the detriment of others, such as being overbearing.    

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Another basic universal principle or law of morality

which always needs to be taken into consideration in moral decision making

is that every human being exists equally to every other human being.

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The existence of the universe requires the existence of each and every individual.

 

Every human being is equal to every other human being.

As a leader you must consider yourself equal to your followers.

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Every moral principle must be grounded in the fundamental, universal principle of life

which is equality: the fact that the universe exists equally

to each and every individual in the continuous present moment.

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In every moral decision you or I make we must consider the fact that

every human being cares for their own survival and continued existence.  

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​​Approaching Moral Situations from Care for Life

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The foundation for the moral principle of equality is that

my care for myself is equal to your care for yourself.

I am selfish and you are selfish.

My care for myself is equal to your care for yourself,

as is every human beings care for self.

Every leadership and moral decision you and I make must take this into consideration.

 

All human beings are self-centered.

Every human being cares for themselves and their continued existence.

Every human being's care is equal.

 

Ethics is the study of how I survive and prosper,

how you survive and prosper

and how we flourish together.

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we are each self-centered,

and we need each other to exist, and to continue to exist, individually and as a species.

​We must care for each other as equals.

​​

Care is the fundamental force of this world of ethics. 

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To become a leader, you need to focus your moral decision making

on the self-centered care and outcome for You

and the other-centered care and outcome for followers and others effected.

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note: Some Background on Approaches to Moral Decision Making

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The discussion above mentions the outcome for you or others as a focal point.

While the outcome is important, moral decisions must equally be based on moral principles. 

 

Moral principles have been developed in much the same way as scientific principles.

 

In order to survive and flourish, we have developed principles in the areas of

farming, agriculture, construction, medicine, transportation, manufacturing, and more. 

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Many of the historical principles of science were based on outcomes,

finding things that were true about the way the world is.

It is as simple as knowing what foods will make a human sick

or that without irrigation plants may not get the water needed to grow. 

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The same is true of moral principles.

It is as simple as knowing that without compassion a child cannot survive or prosper,

or that if someone physically hurts another person,

that person will suffer, may die or may retaliate.

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It is important in the development of your leadership and moral decision-making 

that you also acquire an understanding of some of the historical challenges

in moral decision making.

 

Moral theories have historically been classified into 2 groups:

consequential or outcome based, as discussed above, and non-consequential.

 

As the name sounds, the consequential group focuses on the outcome of your decision,

as a measure of whether or not it was a morally right or wrong decision.

The non-consequential group focus on the principle or rule applied, or your duty.

Even if the outcome is not good

your intentions or desire to implement a good moral principle,

or why and how you made your decision, make it a morally good decision.

 

While this is an interesting dichotomy, it is not necessary,

nor does it match the real nature of the moral world we create and live in.

 

Proper moral decision making must consider 

both the universal moral principles in the world, or the way the world is,

and the consequences of your moral decisions, or what the world should become.

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Principles and consequences are inseparable,

because of the fact that we create the moral world we live in.

​

We currently believe that the physical world just happened,

as in the scientific theories of creation,

or that some supreme being, or God created it.

​​

Some day we may understand how matter, energy, and the laws of physics came into being.

​However, I am certain that I exist, just as you are certain that you exist.

​​

As discussed at length in the opening sections of this course,

individually, and together, we create the good and bad, right and wrong,

or the moral world.

​

It is this interaction of outcomes and principles, 

and of individual and collective survival and flourishing,

that is, or causes, the continuous creation of the moral world.

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You must do your best in each moral situation you face.

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To make a leadership or moral decision:

​consider possible outcomes

based on care for self and others,

base your decision on some principle or principles,

then you evaluate what happened, review the outcome, 

and consider the principles you based your decision upon.

​Then, the next time you are faced with a moral decision, you try to do better.

It is that simple.

​​​

The next sections, on rights and duty, look at some of the principles

or non-consequential approaches to moral decision making.

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​Approaching Moral Situations from Rights innate in being human

​​

The next two approaches to moral decision-making spring from the care for self and others.

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The first comes from the fact that you came into existence, 

just as the universe came into existence.

​You exist and the universe exists.  Those are facts.

Another way of saying that is that you have a right to exist,

just as the universe has a right to exist.    

That is the very nature and essence of existence.

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You have the right to exist,

to continue your existence,

and to flourish.

​

I have exactly the same right as you to exist,

to continue my existence

and to flourish.

​

This right is often called a natural right.

 

​Every human being comes into existence at conception,

in exactly the same way as every other human being.

​​

Every human being exists and has the exact same right to this existence.

Individual existence is as significant as the existence of the universe itself.

​

The individual right to existence is grounded in the existence of the universe.

Just as the universe itself exists,

so does every individual human being.

It is more than simply a right a person is conceived with,

it is the very nature of existence itself.  

​

A person can no more say that the universe does not have the right to existence,

than they can say any individual does not have the right to existence. 

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Every human being equally

has the right to exist,

to continue their existence,

and to flourish.

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You know for certain that you exist,

and with almost equal certainty that others like you exist.

​

You have some ideas about how you came into existence,

just as collectively we have some ideas about how the universe came into existence,

but there is uncertainty regarding this 'how'.

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Just at the universe encompasses all, everything in existence, throughout all time,

so too, you constitute all of the known existence, in the continuous moment,

as do I, and every other human who was, is and will be.

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You are aware that there are things and events beyond your experience,

that there are things unknown to you,

but it is you who are aware of these things, within your consciousness.

​​​

It is the individual experience of the universe 

that is the foundation of the rights of a human being.

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​​​​​​​​Tools

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There are many rights

which stem from this basic, natural right to existence and flourishing.

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In making a leadership or moral decision, you need to always start from the fact

that you and I and every other person has this basic right to exist,

and that it is equal across all human beings.

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Springing from this basic right of existence

are the rights of food, water, clothing and shelter,

around which moral decision making should be fairly simple.

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However, when dealing with rights, even these basic human moral rights,

moral decision making can be challenging.

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There are times when there are limited resources,

and my rights and your rights to basic resources are in conflict.

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Moral decision making can become complicated when dealing with your or my right to flourish.  

We may define flourishing differently, 

or consider different things as necessary for flourishing.

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Dealing with rights beyond those basic for existence, can be very challenging.

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The key to this challenge is to always stay focused on the basics.

Your moral decisions can be simplified by always returning to the core facts,

that you have a right to exist and flourish

and I have a right to exist and flourish. 

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Your right of existence and flourishing is primary and is yours alone.

You can give it to another person, dedicate your life to another,

or even sacrifice your life for another. 

It is yours.

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Next in significance and importance in moral decision making is that

every other human has the right of existence and flourishing equally.

​​

My right of existence and flourishing is primary and is mine alone.

I can give it to another person, dedicate my life to another,

or even sacrifice my life for another.  

It is mine.

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Approaching Moral Situations from an inherent obligation to myself and others

​​

You have an obligation, or duty, to always consider your right to existence and flourishing

as well as my rights, and the rights of all other human beings.

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It is from this foundation that the many different theories of moral duty spring.

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One such theory states that you should always act as if your moral decision,

based on whatever principles and circumstances you evaluated,

would become a universal moral law which all must obey.

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A version of this is often called the Golden Rule, 

to do unto others as you wish them to do unto you.

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A stronger version of the Golden Rule goes even farther,

making it an obligation, or moral duty,

stating that you must base your moral decision and action

on the belief that everyone should always act that way,

in the situation you are in.

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​Another way of phrasing this stronger version of the Golden Rule

is that you have a duty to do unto others

as you would have them do unto anyone and everyone

in the circumstances you are in.

​

This Golden way of treating everyone, 

applies to how you would like others to treat your family, friends, loved ones,

as well as those you don't know or care about, and even those you do not like,

or who you might considered an enemy.

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This strong Golden Rule is a good framework for every moral decision.

That is, you must make a moral decision,

that you believe is the true way a human should act,

that corresponds with the true way the moral world is,

and that your decision

is a truly good, right and moral decision or action.

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This duty to make the right decision, that everyone must follow given the same circumstances,

brings to light one of the most difficult aspects of leadership and moral decision making,

or rather, judging the moral decisions of others.

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It is not possible to know all the circumstances surrounding another's decision.

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It is difficult enough to understand yourself, 

and to make a good moral decision, in your own life,

let alone comprehend the circumstances of another.

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However, the duty you have to me and I have to you, and we have to others,

is real and is important.

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In moral decision making you need to take into proper account

your, my, and every other human beings right to exist and to flourish,

try to treat everyone equally,

take into account the fact that there are real and true principles,

which you need to try to apply properly,

(many of which were built on the Golden Rule)

and also consider the best outcome for all.

 

The Golden Rule has many variants,

such as to act of out of an equal love for self and others,

or to act in such a way so that you could make

a universal law, rule or principle out of your action,

which would apply to you and all people,

or to try to remove all of your own biases, so that you make a decision

which would be good for the survival and flourishing

of any human in any similar situation.

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The final theory to discuss is an expansion of this stronger version of the Golden Rule,

and contains elements of how it came about.

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Approaching Moral Situations as creators of the moral world

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We create the moral world and the social world.

This is magnified when we are in a leadership role.  

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The laws which govern a group of people, within a country or other organization,

are an example of human creations, both moral and social. 

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The agreement to treat each other equally is sometimes considered a social contract.

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Tool

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What is important in this approach to moral decision making 

is a helpful decision-making thought exercise called the reverse blindfold.

​​​

As you ponder your moral decision, try to imagine it then becoming a moral principle or rule

which everyone must follow, as discussed in the strong version of the Golden Rule.

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Now also imagine that you do not know who you will be in the world where you,

and everyone must follow this moral principle.

You do not know if you will be rich or poor, male or female,

what race you will be, or into what situation you will be born.

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This thought exercise is designed to help you try your best

to make a decision which will be fair to everyone.

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Another way to think of the Golden Rule, and trying to address the wellbeing of all humanity,

is often referred to as making your decision for the greater good of humanity. 

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​​The Greater Good

​

Complications arise in moral decision making because there are a lot of people,

and there many challenges in harmonizing your and my right to existence and flourishing

with the rights of the many other people on the planet.

​

Challenges also arise from understanding the notion of flourishing,

and knowing how to balance the many different moral principles.

​

The Greater Good is a phrase used to help you make a moral decision 

which will affect many people.

It is also useful in instances where there is no clear, simple decision,

or when what you must decide between your own good and the good of others,

or among conflicting principles.

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To make a moral decision or take a moral action based on the greater good,

is to act in the best interest of all humanity, yourself included.

​

The Greater Good is something which promotes the existence and flourishing 

of all humanity and can be extended to all living things.

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Tools

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The first step in addressing a moral decision which will influence many people,

is to always keep in mind that there are only groups of individuals,

there is no ‘collective being’ or group that is made up of identical people.

​

Every individual is unique and exists equally to you and every other individual.

 

However, it is necessary to make leadership and moral decisions

regarding large groups of individuals.

Economic, judicial, governmental, medical, and many other types of moral decisions

affecting many people must be made.

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Often, we try to apply notions of the greater good to these large-scale decisions. 

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One way of deciding for the greater good is to determine which decision

will being the greatest happiness, or flourishing, to the most people. 

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Another method is to look for decisions which are designed 

to result in something good for all human beings, no matter their situation,

such as the basics of food, clothing and shelter, 

along with things like freedom and opportunity. 

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The greater good can also be thought of as a moral duty to some principle,

the duty being something which is good for all the people,

or something all people should aspire to uphold.

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Moral Decision Making  - A Combined Approach

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There are several simple guiding factors, as discussed in general above,

none of which should be used in isolation in making a moral decision.

 

You should approach moral decisions the same way,

whether you are dealing with something which affects just you,

or the people around you, or your organization or nation or in some way everyone on the planet.

​

To the best of your ability, think through your decision options,

considering how each possible decision will affect your survival and flourishing,

as well as considering those who will be touched by your words or actions,

and their right, equal to yours, of survival and flourishing.

 

What is important is that you look at your moral decision

from as many different approaches as possible,

given your circumstances and the time constraints you are under.

 

Once you have made your decision, you then need to reflect on it, 

and try to do better the next time.

​

Each moral situation you face and decision you make

is a form of practice to help you make the next moral decision you face

the best possibly moral decision.

Try to do better each time you must make a moral decision.

​

Never give up, keep searching for moral tools, and most importantly,

remember that moral decision making is a god-like power.

 

Each time you make a moral decision, you create the good and bad in the world,

you create what is right and wrong, for yourself and every other human being.

 

It is an incredible power which you have as a human being.

 

Trying to do better each time you need to make a moral decision

makes you an Excellent leader.

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